Pre-Green Revolution Agriculture
Before the Green Revolution began in the mid-1960s, Indian agriculture was largely characterized by low productivity, outdated methods, and complete dependence on rainfall. Farmers relied heavily on age-old techniques handed down through generations. Plowing was done using wooden tools and bullocks, and seeds used were traditional varieties with low yield potential. There was minimal use of fertilizers, pesticides, or irrigation systems, which made the entire agricultural cycle vulnerable to natural fluctuations, especially monsoons. This meant that a failed rainy season could result in the complete collapse of crops, bringing famine and economic distress.
Agriculture was also mainly subsistence-based, where farmers grew just enough to feed their own families, with very little or no surplus for market sale. The lack of infrastructure—both physical and institutional—meant that even when there was surplus, farmers had no proper storage, transport, or market access. Consequently, agricultural productivity remained stagnant for decades, contributing to the chronic food shortages experienced by the nation.
Food Insecurity
The issue of food insecurity became acute in the decades following independence in 1947. The most significant and tragic reminder of this was the Bengal Famine of 1943, where millions perished due to starvation and malnutrition. Though this occurred before independence, it underscored the vulnerabilities of India’s food system. In the 1950s and 1960s, the country continued to witness recurring food shortages. India’s population was growing rapidly, and food production could not keep pace. Malnutrition was widespread, and the threat of famine remained real and present. The situation in the early 1960s became critical, pushing the government to seek radical solutions to avoid another national disaster.
Dependency on Imports
To bridge the gap between food demand and supply, India depended heavily on food imports, primarily from the United States under the PL-480 program. This food aid, while crucial, made India dependent on external sources for its basic sustenance. The arrangement also came with its own risks. Any diplomatic rift with donor countries could halt food supplies and plunge the country into crisis. Furthermore, this dependency was economically unsustainable. Importing food consumed large amounts of foreign exchange and contributed to inflationary pressures. The Indian leadership realized that the country could not build a strong and independent economy without achieving self-sufficiency in food production.
Political and Economic Pressure
The urgency to reform agriculture was also driven by rising political and economic pressures. With a population crossing 500 million, the demand for food was soaring. Agricultural stagnation threatened not just food security but also the broader socio-economic development of the country. A large section of India’s workforce was engaged in agriculture, yet the sector contributed minimally to national income. The government faced the dual challenge of ensuring food availability and improving the livelihood of farmers. To address these issues, policy planners and scientists started looking towards technological innovations and institutional reforms, setting the stage for what would be called the Green Revolution.
Main Features of the Green Revolution
High Yielding Variety (HYV) Seeds
One of the cornerstones of the Green Revolution was the introduction of high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds. These seeds, including well-known varieties such as IR8 for rice and Lerma Rojo, Sonalika, and Kalyan Sona for wheat, dramatically increased crop yields. Unlike traditional seeds, HYVs were scientifically developed to respond better to inputs such as water, fertilizers, and pesticides. As a result, they produced significantly more grains per hectare. In particular, wheat production saw a revolutionary leap, especially in the northwestern regions of India.
The adoption of these seeds required a shift in farming techniques. Farmers were trained and encouraged to use appropriate combinations of inputs and adopt new planting methods. This technology-driven approach allowed India to achieve self-sufficiency in food grains within two decades. However, it also meant that only those who could afford the required inputs could benefit fully from HYV technology, leaving out a significant portion of small and marginal farmers.
Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides
To maximize the benefits of HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides were introduced on a wide scale. Nitrogen-based fertilizers such as urea became common on Indian farms. These fertilizers enriched the soil and accelerated plant growth, leading to higher yields. Pesticides helped protect crops from insects and diseases, reducing crop losses and increasing reliability of harvests. The use of these chemicals marked a departure from traditional organic farming practices and introduced a new scientific element into agriculture.
However, the widespread use of chemicals also had long-term consequences. Over time, excessive application led to soil nutrient depletion, pest resistance, and contamination of water sources. Initially hailed as miracle inputs, fertilizers and pesticides soon became a double-edged sword, with their misuse creating serious ecological problems in many parts of the country.
Irrigation Infrastructure
The success of the Green Revolution heavily depended on assured and adequate water supply. Consequently, massive investments were made to expand irrigation facilities. Canals were built and extended, while farmers were encouraged to install tube wells and pump sets. States with already well-developed irrigation systems, such as Punjab and Haryana, were quick to adopt the new agricultural practices, becoming symbols of the revolution’s success.
With the improved irrigation infrastructure, farmers could grow crops throughout the year rather than depending solely on monsoons. This led to an increase in cropping intensity and enabled multiple harvests annually. Nonetheless, the emphasis on irrigation also contributed to over-extraction of groundwater, especially in the northwestern states, where falling water tables have become a serious concern in recent years.
Mechanization
Mechanization played a crucial role in increasing the efficiency of agricultural operations. Tractors, threshers, and harvesters were introduced to replace manual labor. This not only sped up farming activities but also allowed for the cultivation of larger land areas. Mechanization reduced dependency on seasonal labor and minimized the time between harvesting and sowing, which in turn helped increase cropping frequency.
The growth of agro-industries such as tractor manufacturing and repair workshops contributed to rural industrialization. However, as with other features of the Green Revolution, the benefits of mechanization were uneven. Wealthier farmers were able to invest in machinery, while small and marginal farmers either stayed dependent on manual labor or went into debt to purchase equipment.
Multiple Cropping and Improved Practices
With the availability of better seeds, irrigation, and inputs, farmers began adopting multiple cropping patterns. This meant growing more than one crop on the same land within a year. The practice not only increased overall agricultural output but also diversified income sources for farmers. Alongside multiple cropping, improved farming practices were introduced. Crop rotation, timely sowing, seed treatment, and optimum spacing became part of the modern agricultural toolkit.
These scientific practices enhanced soil health, controlled pests naturally, and improved overall yield stability. Agricultural extension services played a crucial role in disseminating this knowledge. However, adoption varied across regions, often depending on literacy levels, institutional support, and availability of inputs.
Key Contributors
M.S. Swaminathan
Dr. M.S. Swaminathan is widely acknowledged as the architect of the Green Revolution in India. A visionary agricultural scientist, he was instrumental in bringing HYV seeds to India and promoting their adoption among farmers. As Director of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, he collaborated with international institutions and led research efforts to adapt imported seed varieties to Indian conditions. His leadership ensured that the Green Revolution was not just a technological leap but also a well-managed national movement.
Swaminathan emphasized the importance of institutional support and equitable access to new technologies. He advocated for government intervention in pricing, input supply, and credit facilities, ensuring that the benefits of the revolution reached as many farmers as possible. His work laid the foundation for India’s transformation from a food-deficit to a food-surplus country.
Norman Borlaug
Norman Borlaug, an American agronomist, played a foundational role in the global Green Revolution. His research in Mexico on high-yielding, disease-resistant wheat varieties provided the technological basis for agricultural transformation in several developing countries, including India. It was Borlaug’s wheat varieties that were first tested and later adopted in India under the guidance of Swaminathan and other Indian scientists.
Borlaug’s philosophy emphasized the power of science in solving hunger and poverty. He believed that increasing food production was the first step toward social and economic progress. For his contributions, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. His legacy continues to inspire agricultural innovation worldwide.
Conclusion
The Green Revolution was a turning point in India's agricultural history. While it helped achieve food security and transformed the country’s image globally, it also brought along challenges that continue to affect Indian agriculture. The need today is to build on its successes while addressing its shortcomings through sustainable, inclusive, and environment-friendly practices.