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#24 Concepts: GDP, GNP, NNP, NDP #25 Methods of Measuring National Income: Production, Income, Expenditure #26 Real vs. Nominal GDP #27 Limitations of National Income Accounting #28 Distinction between Growth and Development #29 Indicators of Economic Development: HDI, PQLI #30 Theories of Economic Growth: Harrod-Domar, Solow #31 Sustainable Development and Green GDP #32 Functions and Types of Money #33 Theories of Money: Quantity Theory, Keynesian Approach #34 Banking System: Structure and Functions #35 Role and Functions of Central Bank (RBI) #36 Objectives and Instruments: CRR, SLR, Repo Rate #37 Transmission Mechanism of Monetary Policy #38 Inflation Targeting Framework #39 Effectiveness and Limitations of Monetary Policy #40 Components: Government Revenue and Expenditure #41 Budgetary Process in India #42 Fiscal Deficit, Revenue Deficit, Primary Deficit #43 FRBM Act and Fiscal Consolidation #44 Types and Causes of Inflation #45 Effects of Inflation on Economy #46 Measures to Control Inflation: Monetary and Fiscal #47 Deflation: Causes, Consequences, and Remedies #48 Types: Frictional, Structural, Cyclical, Seasonal #49 Measurement of Unemployment #50 Causes and Consequences #51 Government Policies to Reduce Unemployment #52 Measurement of Poverty: Poverty Line, MPI #53 Causes of Poverty in India #54 Income Inequality: Lorenz Curve and Gini Coefficient #55 Poverty Alleviation Programs in India #56 Principles of Taxation: Direct and Indirect Taxes #57 Public Expenditure: Types and Effects #58 Public Debt: Internal and External #59 Deficit Financing and its Implications #60 Theories: Absolute and Comparative Advantage #61 Balance of Payments: Components and Disequilibrium #62 Exchange Rate Systems: Fixed, Flexible, Managed Float #63 International Monetary Fund (IMF): Objectives and Functions #64 World Bank Group: Structure and Assistance Programs #65 World Trade Organization (WTO): Agreements and Disputes #66 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) #67 Characteristics of Indian Economy #68 Demographic Trends and Challenges #69 Sectoral Composition: Agriculture, Industry, Services #70 Planning in India: Five-Year Plans and NITI Aayog #71 Land Reforms and Green Revolution #72 Agricultural Marketing and Pricing Policies #73 Issues of Subsidies and MSP #74 Food Security and PDS System #75 Industrial Policies: 1956, 1991 #76 Role of Public Sector Enterprises #77 MSMEs: Significance and Challenges #78 Make in India and Start-up India Initiatives #79 more longer Growth and Contribution to GDP #80 IT and ITES Industry #81 Tourism and Hospitality Sector #82 Challenges and Opportunities #83 Transport Infrastructure: Roads, Railways, Ports, Airports #84 Energy Sector: Conventional and Renewable Sources #85 Money Market: Instruments and Institutions #86 Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) in Infrastructure #87 Urban Infrastructure and Smart Cities #88 Capital Market: Primary and Secondary Markets #89 SEBI and Regulation of Financial Markets #90 Recent Developments: Crypto-currencies and Digital Payments #91 Nationalization of Banks #92 Liberalization and Entry of Private Banks #93 Non-Performing Assets (NPAs) and Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC) #94 Financial Inclusion: Jan Dhan Yojana, Payment Banks #95 Life and Non-Life Insurance: Growth and Regulation #96 IRDAI: Role and Functions #97 Pension Reforms and NPS #98 Challenges in Insurance Penetration #99 Trends in India’s Foreign Trade #100 Trade Agreements and Regional Cooperation #101 Foreign Exchange Reserves and Management #102 Current Account Deficit and Capital Account Convertibility #103 Sectoral Caps and Routes #104 FDI Policy Framework in India #105 Regulations Governing FPI #106 Recent Trends and Challenges #107 Difference between FDI and FPI #108 Impact of FDI on Indian Economy #109 Impact on Stock Markets and Economy #110 Volatility and Hot Money Concerns #111 Determination of Exchange Rates #112 Role of RBI in Forex Market #113 Rupee Depreciation/Appreciation: Causes and Impact #114 Sources of Public Revenue: Taxes, Fees, Fines #115 Types of Public Expenditure: Capital and Revenue #116 Components of the Budget: Revenue and Capital Accounts #117 Types of Budget: Balanced, Surplus, Deficit #118 Fiscal Deficit, Revenue Deficit, Primary Deficit #119 Implications of Deficit Financing on Economy #120 Performance and Challenges #121 Current Account and Capital Account #122 Causes and Measures of BoP Disequilibrium #123 Fixed vs. Flexible Exchange Rates #124 Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) Theory #125 Absolute and Comparative Advantage #126 Heckscher-Ohlin Theory #127 Free Trade vs. Protectionism #128 Tariffs, Quotas, and Subsidies #129 Concepts and Indicators #130 Environmental Kuznets Curve #131 Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources #132 Tragedy of the Commons #133 Economic Impact of Climate Change #134 Carbon Trading and Carbon Tax #135 Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement #136 National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) #137 Factors Affecting Productivity #138 Green Revolution and Its Impact #139 Abolition of Intermediaries

ECONOMICS

Introduction
Understanding the true value of money across nations is vital in international economics. Exchange rates alone often don’t provide a complete picture. This is where Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) becomes essential. It allows economists to assess and compare different economies on the basis of what people can actually purchase with their income, beyond nominal currency values.

PPP is a widely accepted tool used to evaluate and compare cost of living, economic productivity, and real income levels across countries. It addresses the core question: how much of a country's currency is needed to buy the same goods and services in another country?


Understanding the Concept of Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)
Purchasing Power Parity is based on the Law of One Price, which suggests that in the absence of transaction costs and market distortions, the same product should cost the same in two countries when priced in a common currency.

For example, if a basket of goods costs $100 in the United States and ₹7,000 in India, the PPP exchange rate would be ₹70 = $1. If the actual market exchange rate is different, one of the currencies is considered either overvalued or undervalued.

PPP provides a long-term perspective of exchange rate movements and is an important indicator of currency misalignment and comparative economic well-being.


Types of Purchasing Power Parity

Absolute PPP
Absolute PPP is the most straightforward form. It suggests that the price level of a specific basket of goods should be equal across countries when expressed in a single currency. If a coffee costs $3 in the U.S. and ₹240 in India, the PPP exchange rate would be ₹80 to $1.

While theoretically sound, Absolute PPP rarely holds in the real world due to tariffs, transportation costs, and differences in goods and services available in different countries.

Relative PPP
Relative PPP focuses on the rate of change in prices rather than actual price levels. It suggests that the change in exchange rates over time between two currencies should reflect the difference in inflation rates between the two countries.

For instance, if inflation in Country A is 3% and in Country B is 7%, the currency of Country B is expected to depreciate by 4% relative to Country A’s currency over time.

Relative PPP is more applicable in real-world scenarios because it takes into account inflationary trends rather than assuming price equality.


Importance of Purchasing Power Parity in the Real World

Comparing Living Standards
PPP helps in comparing the cost of living and economic well-being across countries. Using market exchange rates can distort comparisons because they fluctuate due to speculation and short-term factors. PPP-adjusted GDP provides a more accurate representation of what people can buy in their own country, making it ideal for comparing living standards.

Exchange Rate Valuation
Economists use PPP to identify if a currency is under or overvalued. If the exchange rate deviates significantly from the PPP rate, it may signal a currency adjustment is due. This information is essential for investors and policymakers who monitor economic stability.

Business and Investment Decisions
Multinational companies use PPP when entering new markets. It helps them understand the real cost of operating, sourcing materials, and setting product prices in foreign countries. For example, a product priced affordably in one country may be perceived as expensive in another due to differences in purchasing power.

Policy Formulation and International Aid
International organizations like the World Bank, IMF, and UN use PPP data to allocate development aid, analyze economic growth, and assess poverty levels. Policies based on PPP-adjusted figures tend to be more equitable and grounded in local economic realities.


Limitations and Criticisms of PPP Theory

Non-Tradable Goods
PPP assumes all goods are tradable, but in practice, many services (like healthcare, education, and housing) are not. These services often differ widely in quality and cost from one country to another, making perfect price comparisons difficult.

Market Frictions
Transaction costs, taxes, tariffs, and cultural preferences cause persistent price differences that PPP doesn’t account for. For example, brand premiums and local tastes influence prices independent of currency value.

Short-Term Exchange Rate Volatility
PPP is a long-term concept. In the short run, exchange rates are influenced by speculation, interest rate changes, and political instability. Therefore, market rates often deviate from PPP values.

Data Inconsistencies
It is difficult to create identical baskets of goods for comparison due to regional variations. Furthermore, countries may use different methodologies to collect and interpret price data, affecting the accuracy of PPP calculations.


Real-World Example: The Big Mac Index

The Economist’s Big Mac Index is a fun yet illustrative application of PPP. It compares the price of a McDonald’s Big Mac burger in different countries to evaluate whether currencies are at their "correct" value.

For instance, if a Big Mac costs $5.00 in the U.S. and ₹250 in India, the implied PPP exchange rate is ₹50 to $1. If the market rate is ₹75 to $1, the Indian rupee is undervalued by 33% based on this metric.

While simplistic, this index provides a relatable way to understand PPP and its implications in everyday purchases.


Conclusion

Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) is a cornerstone of modern economic analysis. It goes beyond nominal exchange rates and looks at what people can actually buy with their money — a far more insightful measure of economic strength and quality of life.

From comparing living standards and assessing economic productivity to guiding investment decisions and informing global policy, PPP serves a wide range of crucial functions. It offers a standardized way to understand differences in income, cost of living, and currency value.

Despite its practical significance, PPP is not without flaws. It assumes frictionless markets and consistent pricing, which do not exist in reality. Non-tradable goods, market imperfections, and statistical challenges limit its accuracy. Nevertheless, when used carefully and in combination with other metrics, PPP remains a powerful tool for long-term economic comparison.

In a global economy where exchange rates fluctuate and market sentiment often overshadows fundamentals, PPP provides a stable and insightful lens through which to view the real value of currencies. It reminds us that beyond numbers and forex charts, what truly matters is purchasing power — the ability of people to meet their needs and improve their quality of life.